Proto-Nyewere'
<-Back to Conlangs =Proto-Nyewere' languages= The Nyewere' languages (both "proper" Nyewere' and Toganish) are among the most widespread spoken languages in the South continent. However, most of them have not had any written tradition, with the notable exceptions of Towahula and Jibshen. These languages are characterized by the large amount of consonants countersided by a fairly simple vocalic system. Consonants similar to what we could call "clicks" are found in many languages of this family, although they do not seem to have existed in the proto-language. Each language has lots of dialects, but most of them are mutually intelligible. There is also little record about these dialects, as they are used primarily in everyday "domestic" speech, the "standard" languages being used when talking to speakers of other dialects and in the rare situations when the language is written. The major languages Towahula and Jibshen, as well as foreign languages such as Handun or Efhang, are generally used in writing. =Phonology= Consonants Proto-Nyewere' has up to 52 consonants, including affricates (ts, dz, tʃ, dʒ) and co-articulated (k͡p, ɡ͡b). Vowels Vowels in Proto-Nyewere' are as follows: Syllables Syllable structure for Proto-Nyewere' is ©V©. Generally, no more than two consonants can come together. Stress Words are generally stressed on the next-to-last (penultimate) syllable. In most languages of the family, however, stress is not distinctive for meaning, so it can vary considerably and even be not fixed at all. The practice for Proto-Nyewere' is to stress all words on the next-to-last syllable. Tone The use of tone in individual syllables is present in most languages of the family. Although no pattern could be traced to the ancestor language, it is supposed that it used tone as well. Intonation The Nyewere' languages have a characteristic intonation, by which most sentences sound like what is a question in other languages. The exact intonation curve varies from one language to the other, but it always follows an "inquisitive" contour. There is no indication of what the intonation in Proto-Nyewere' was, but, as it is a characteristic present in all the languages of the family, the ancestor language is supposed to have had it as well. =Morphology= Nouns Nouns are divided in classes, according to the nature of what is being nominated. There is a lot of derivation done by simply changing the class of a word. There is a tripartite number system, with a singular, a "paucal" plural (for numbers up to ten) and a "real" plural (for numbers above ten). There are ten grammatical cases, some of them expressed by prefixes and others by suffixes. Classes The noun classes are the following: *1 - human beings (man, child, woman, teacher &c.) *2 - nature elements (wind, rain, river &c.); places *3 - animals *4 - objects, tools (hammer, shoe, weapon &c.) *5 - liquids (water, blood, milk &c.) *6 - inanimate objects (stone, wood, ice &c.) *7 - abstract (love, idea, friendship, fear &c.) *8 - actions (war, performance, show &c.) *9 - features (color, size, goodness, attitude &c.) *10 - miscellaneous (mostly used for more modern nouns such as "computer program", "interplanetary voyage", "cloning" &c.) These classes are denoted in nouns and adjectives by means of suffixes. In the following table, the prefixes are indicated in the order singular, paucal, plural: *Class 1: -daa, -ndaa, -maa *Class 2: -di, -k͡pi, -k͡pi *Class 3: -ʡi, -ʡiʃ, -ʡiŋ *Class 4: -jik, -baa, -ʜaap *Class 5: -laa, -ee, -taa *Class 6: -man, -tʃan, -tʃan *Class 7: -kwi, -ʡik, -ʡik *Class 8: -kwa, -ʡaa, -ü *Class 9: -waa, -lak, -lak *Class 10: -e, -nde, -eeŋ Examples: *'ʐijuudaa' "man", ʐijuundaa "(a few) men", ʐijuumaa "(many) men" *'tojpheedi' "wind", tojpheek͡pi "winds" *'tʃombeʡi' "bird", tʃombeʡiʃ "(a few) birds", tʃombeʡiŋ "(many) birds" *'ŋambwatjik' "hammer", ŋambwatbaa "(a few) hammers", ŋambwatʜaap "(many) hammers" *'dreoodlaa' "a drop", dreoodee "(a few) drops", dreoodtaa "(many) drops" *'ekɭapman' "stone", ekɭaptʃan "stones" *'ʐuʈakwi' "idea", ʐuʈaʡik "ideas" *'tabɖutkaaɖkwa' "war", tabɖutkaaɖʡaa "(a few) wars", tabɖutkaaɖü "(many) wars" *'k͡peʃaɲewaa' "colour", k͡peʃaɲelak "colours" *'mobwuðae' "computer program", mobwuðande "(a few) computer programs", mobwuðaeeŋ "(many) computer programs" Case There are six main cases, marked with suffixes, and four secondary cases, marked with prefixes: *Topic (suff.) *Nominative (suff.) *Accusative (suff.) *Genitive (suff.) *Dative (suff.) *Locative (suff.) *Instrumental (pref.) *Commitative (pref.) *Ablative (pref.) *Abortive (pref.) There is a Vocative case, which is marked by the absence of case markers. There are two series of suffixes, one for animate and one for inanimate nouns. There is only one series of prefixes. Examples: *'ʐijuudaa!' "(oh) man!" (vocative) *'ʐijuudaaŋo' "(a/the) man" (topic) *'ʐijuudaanda' "(a/the) man" (subject) *'ʐijuudaaeend' "(a/the) man" (direct object) *'ʐijuudaaʒo' "of (a/the) man" *'ʐijuudaali' "(a/the) man" (indirect object) *'ʐijuudaambi' "in/on (a/the) man" *'kuʐijuudaa' "by means of (a/the) man" *'ŋembʐijuudaa' "together with (a/the) man" *'zedʐijuudaa' "from/by (a/the) man" *'roʐijuudaa' "without (a/the) man" *'ʐijuumaa!' "(oh) men!" (vocative) *'ʐijuumaaŋo' "(the) men" (topic) *'ʐijuumaanda' "(the) men" (subject) *'ʐijuumaaeend' "(the) men" (direct object) *'ʐijuumaaʒo' "of (the) men" *'ʐijuumaali' "(the) men" (indirect object) *'ʐijuumaambi' "in/on (the) men" *'kuʐijuumaa' "by means of (the) men" *'ŋembʐijuumaa' "together with (the) men" *'zedʐijuumaa' "from/by (the) men" *'roʐijuumaa' "without (the) men" *'βaʈajikpuu' "(a/the) knife" (topic) *'βaʈajikndi' "(a/the) knife" (subject) *'βaʈajikghuu' "(a/the) knife" (direct object) *'βaʈajiket' "of (a/the) knife" *'βaʈajikla' "(a/the) knife" (indirect object) *'βaʈajikmba' "in/on (a/the) knife" *'kuβaʈajik' "by means of (a/the) knife" *'ŋembβaʈajik' "together with (a/the) knife" *'zedβaʈajik' "from/by (a/the) knife" *'roβaʈajik' "without (a/the) knife" *'βaʈaʜaappuu' "(the) knives" (topic) *'βaʈaʜaapndi' "(the) knives" (subject) *'βaʈaʜaapghuu' "(the) knives" (direct object) *'βaʈaʜaapet' "of (the) knives" *'βaʈaʜaapla' "(the) knives" (indirect object) *'βaʈaʜaapmba' "in/on (the) knives" *'kuβaʈaʜaap' "by means of (the) knives" *'ŋembβaʈaʜaap' "together with (the) knives" *'zedβaʈaʜaap' "from/by (the) knives" *'roβaʈaʜaap' "without (the) knives" Derivation The change of a noun from one class to other is largely used as a means of derivation. E.g.: *'tiiɭakwi' "teaching" (class 7) **'tiiɭajik' "book", "textbook", "schoolbook" (class 4) **'tiiɭadaa' "teacher" (class 1) **'tiiɭakwa' "lesson", "lecture" (class 8) **'tiiɭadi' "school" (class 2) There may even be secondary derivation with more than one suffix. E.g.: *'tiiɭajik' "book", "textbook", "schoolbook" (class 4) **'tiiɭajikdaa' "writer" (class 1) **'tiiɭajikdi' "book store", "library" (class 2) ***'tiiɭajikdidaa' "book seller", "book dealer", "librarian" (class 1) Adjectives Adjectives come before nouns and receive the same class suffix as the noun: *'tiʃigudaa ʐijuudaa' "a tall man", tiʃigundaa ʐijuundaa "(a few) tall men", tiʃigumaa ʐijuumaa "(many) tall men" Adjectives receive the same case prefixes as nouns, but not suffixes. E.g.: *'ɟuujik βaʈajikpuu' "(a/the) sharp knife" (topic) *'ɟuujik βaʈajikndi' "(a/the) sharp knife" (subject) *'ɟuujik βaʈajikghuu' "(a/the) sharp knife" (direct object) *'ɟuujik βaʈajiket' "of (a/the) sharp knife" *'ɟuujik βaʈajikla' "(a/the) sharp knife" (indirect object) *'ɟuujik βaʈajikmba' "in/on (a/the) sharp knife" *'kuɟuujik kuβaʈajik' "by means of (a/the) sharp knife" *'ŋembɟuujik ŋembβaʈajik' "together with (a/the) sharp knife" *'zedɟuujik zedβaʈajik' "from/by (a/the) sharp knife" *'roɟuujik roβaʈajik' "without (a/the) sharp knife" *'ɟuuʜaap βaʈaʜaappuu' "(the) sharp knives" (topic) *'ɟuuʜaap βaʈaʜaapndi' "(the) sharp knives" (subject) *'ɟuuʜaap βaʈaʜaapghuu' "(the) sharp knives" (direct object) *'ɟuuʜaap βaʈaʜaapet' "of (the) sharp knives" *'ɟuuʜaap βaʈaʜaapla' "(the) sharp knives" (indirect object) *'ɟuuʜaap βaʈaʜaapmba' "in/on (the) sharp knives" *'kuɟuuʜaap kuβaʈaʜaap' "by means of (the) sharp knives" *'ŋembɟuuʜaap ŋembβaʈaʜaap' "together with (the) sharp knives" *'zedɟuuʜaap zedβaʈaʜaap' "from/by (the) sharp knives" *'roɟuuʜaap roβaʈaʜaap' "without (the) sharp knives" Comparison In Proto-Nyewere´ there was no standard way to compare adjectives. Several constructions were used for this purpose. *"X near Y": muutʃuu toɭuudaaŋo ɟuuʈapadaa drughi baajodaa "This boy (is) old near that (one)" -> "This boy is older than that one." *"Y does not compare to Y": muutʃuu toɭuudaaŋo ɟuuʈapadaa, abruʒ grosa k͡peʝiidze baajodaali "This boy (is) old, but does't compare to that (one)" -> "This boy is older than that one." Pronouns Personal Personal pronouns never receive class suffixes. *'kasu', kaanzaa "I" *'baabha', buutʃee, baaos "thou", "you" (sing.) *'lueja' "he", "she", "it" *'yuuŋa', tʃooruu "we" *'bhoʃi', neru "you" (pl.) *'buukwa' "they" Possessive *'kaanʒo' "my" *'baabʒo', buuʒo "thy", "your" (sing.) *'luuʒo' "his", "her", "its" *'juunʒo' "our" *'bhoʒo', neʒo "your" (pl.) *'buukʒo' "their" Demonstrative *'muutʃuu' "this" (near) *'baajo' "that" (far) Demonstrative pronouns are not declined, except if used with the function of a noun. E.g.: *'Muutʃuu biijajikpuu jüphatajik. Baajojikpuu ndureejik.' "This book is old. That (one) is new." Interrogative Relative Indefinite Numbers Cardinal *0: dreɕa; subu *1: ɮaa; ɟabuu *2: tʃebeew; tʃoɡ *3: taɭawo *4: tovigü *5: tʃiijopoo; taʃu *6: ŋiiɡob̪uu *7: bhiibooɬee *8: bhavöɸuu; tavö *9: ʜojgruɟ *10: musapii *11: jaakwamukwee *12: mumbömukwee *13: muuthumukwee *14: xerumukwee *15: tagumukwee *16: kwagruumukwee *17: fiigroomukwee *18: mbotʃeemukwee *19: ʒasumukwee *20: eethfaʒ *21: eethfaʒ bhaa ɮaa *30: maaŋmuuthupa *40: maaŋxeruge *50: maaŋtaguŋaa *60: maaŋkwagruure *70: maaŋfiigroolee *80: maaŋmbotʃeeʒuu *90: maaŋʒasulaa *100: luutsenduu; rüwöli *200: mumböluutsenduu *1,000: baaklö; tuughaca; ʃüŋöʜe *1,234: baaklö mumböluutsenduu maaŋmuuthupa tovigü Verbs Verbs in Proto-Nyewere´ were extremely simple. There are no inflections or conjugations. Tenses, moods and so were indicated by means of auxiliary words. E.g.: *'Kasuŋo ''sobɖuŋ adbub̪ zetuughadi zesoboodi''' "I live here whole life" -> "I have lived here my whole life." *'Kasunda ''tʃasapa tumba tuuʈi''' "I want go there" -> "I want to go there" *'Kasunda ''tʃasapa baabhaeend tumba tuuʈi''' "I want thee go there" -> "I want you to go there" *'Lueja grosa ''tʃasapa ɟaɕooɸ baabhali''' "He not want talk to-thee" -> "He does not want to talk to you." Modifiers These are place immediately before the verb or at the end of the sentence. Modals *'tʃasapa' "want" *'ghuuʃo', asfönd "must" *'ghotʃee' "may" *'rasa' "can" *'kwuuda' "should" *'ghafö' "might" *'griiphaa' "be supposed to" *'dhaawu', mbakya "like" *'tʃoʃa', bheri "would like" Time *'rethi' (present continuous) *'ɸapho' (past) *'xeŋa' (future) *'liʃa' "just" (very recent past) *'kwodee' "soon" Aspect *'grufa' "start to" (inceptive) *'ʃüra' "always" (durative) *'mbeekwiʃ' "ever" *'miithoo', mutsu "again and again" (repetitive) Mood *'bheri' (conditional) *'tʃuthuj' (subjunctive) *'nde' (imperative; generally omitted) *'eeween' (indirect discourse) =Syntax= Nominal Sentences The copula tsha may be used to link a nominal predicate (adjective or noun) to a subject in the nominative or topic. However, if the topic case is used, the copula is generally left out. Predicative adjectives agree in class and number with the noun. Predicative nouns agree in number with the subject or topic. Personal pronouns do not receive class suffixes. Examples: *'Kasuŋo tiiɭadaa.' "ITOPIC teacher" -> "I am a teacher." *'Juuŋaŋo tiiɭamaa.' "WeTOPIC teachers" -> "We are teachers." *'Kasuŋo boŋoodaa.' "ITOPIC tired" -> "I am tired." *'Juuŋaŋo boŋoondaa.' "WeTOPIC tired" -> "We are tired." *'Muutʃuu tiiɭajikpuu tʃiibjik.' "This bookTOPIC good" -> "This book is good." With the copula: *'Kasunda tʃa tiiɭadaa.' "ISUBJECT COPULA teacher" -> "I am a teacher." *'Juuŋanda tʃa tiiɭamaa.' "WeSUBJECT COPULA teachers" -> "We are teachers." *'Kasunda tʃa boŋoodaa.' "ISUBJECT COPULA tired" -> "I am tired." *'Juuŋanda tʃa boŋoondaa.' "WeSUBJECT COPULA tired" -> "We are tired." *'Muutʃuu biijajikndi tʃa tʃiibjik.' "This bookSUBJECT COPULA good" -> "This book is good." Adverbial expressions can also be used as a predicate: *'Kasuŋo adbub̪.' "ITOPIC here" -> "I am here." *'Kasunda tʃa adbub̪.' "ISUBJECT COPULA here" -> "I am here." *'Buukwaŋo ŋovuudimba.' "TheyTOPIC houseLOCATIVE" -> "They are at home", "They are in the house." Attributive x Predicative Adjectives Attributive adjectives come before the noun and agree in class, number and partially in case (se above). Predicative adjectives come after the subject/topic and agree in class and number with it. Compare: *'Muutʃuu biijajikpuu tʃiibjik.' "This bookTOPIC good" -> "This book is good." *'Muutʃuu tʃiibjik biijajikpuu...' "This good bookTOPIC..." -> "This good book (is)..." Verbal Sentences Word order is SVO, that is, subject first, then the verb, then any complements (objects). Direct object comes before indirect object. Adverbial expressions come at the end of the sentence. Verbal modifiers generally come before the verb, but many of them are considered adverbs and come at the end of the sentence. Examples: *'Kasunda tʃasapa haguka muutʃuu xeklekpighuu luejali mophakwa' "I want give this flowersOBJECT sheDATIVE today" -> "I want to give her these flowers today." *'Luejanda fimbaa muutshuukwighuu kasuli reŋookli.' "HeSUBJECT say thisOBJECT IDATIVE already" -> "He has already told me that." =Samples= *'Resomaa ʒuthuumaaŋo zegruphahokwa tekwumaa ramo dhaʃatemaa, zegrafeerakwi ramo zemotʃeeʒeesʡik. Buukwaŋo mbamatʃiibmaa kumiijaaɸakwi ramo kudhetsaakwi, buukwaŋo kwuuda ʃeeŋam jiwoondemaali kufötʃirakwi gredagtookwiet.' **"All humans from.birth free and equal, in.dignity and in.rights. They endowed with.reason and with.conscience, they should act towards.others in.spirit of.brotherhood." *** -> "All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights. They are endowed with reason and conscience and should act towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood."